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Soybean breeder Cecil Nickell (right) and graduate student David Hoffman examine a soybean plot for signs of white mold, which has been spreading across the Midwest in recent years. As part of the white mold research team at the NSRL, they are studying the genetic basis for inheritance of resistance to this new disease. |
"Results showed that all the tested varieties had significant yield losses caused by white mold," Hartman says. "For every 10 percent increase in disease incidence there was an average loss for the five varieties of 4.5 bushels per acre."
At a 25 percent level of disease, yield was reduced about 16 percent for all varieties. At a 52 percent level of disease, there was an average 40 percent yield reduction. Thresholds for significant dollar losses per acre ranged from zero to 23 percent incidence of disease, depending on the variety.
Hartman notes, however, that the search still is underway for other sources of resistance to white mold. Through cooperative efforts with soybean breeding programs, resistant genes eventually could be placed into agronomically superior varieties.
"Part of the white mold project involves screening soybean lines for new sources of resistance," Hartman says. "Although management practices may reduce the disease, genetic resistance is the only long-term solution to the problem of white mold on soybeans."
As a major step in this effort, 844 plant introductions obtained from the USDA’s Soybean Germplasm Collection at the University of Illinois are being screened for potential new sources of resistance to white mold using an innovative inoculation technique developed by Hartman. These Maturity Group IV accessions are being tested in the greenhouse using two different isolates of the white mold pathogen.
"Preliminary results from the greenhouse testing indicate that 60 of the accessions show resistance to the first of these isolates," Hoffman says. "In addition, 87 of the 844 accessions show resistance to the other isolate. All of the plant introductions that had 100 percent of the plants living after inoculation were rated as resistant."
During the 1997 growing season, the accessions were further tested for resistance under field conditions at several farms with naturally occurring white mold problems. With support from the Illinois Soybean Checkoff Board, the team also is testing 240 commercial soybean varieties in field sites across central and northern Illinois. The goal is to identify currently available varieties that have resistance to white mold and to make that information available to producers as quickly as possible.
"We went to all the seed companies asking for varieties that look promising," Pedersen says. "The idea for testing commercial varieties was generated by the Checkoff Board. This is problem-based, outcome-based research. Farmers wanted some quick answers to this problem, and we think we can deliver."
At the same time, Nickell and Hoffman are continuing to study the genetic basis for inheritance of resistance to white mold. Two varieties reported as resistant and one variety reported as susceptible were used to produce crosses during the 1996 growing season. The progeny of these crosses will be evaluated in the greenhouse during the winter of 1997.
"This greenhouse technique allows us to overcome many of the variables that affect the screening process in the field," Hoffman says. "The ratio of resistant to susceptible plants in these populations from the greenhouse study should allow us to determine the probable number of genes involved in resistance to white mold in the soybean."
According to Nickell, one of the keys that allowed the team to move so quickly to address the new problem of white mold in the Midwest is the flexibility provided by funding from the Illinois Soybean Checkoff Board for genetics and breeding programs at the National Soybean Research Laboratory.
"The ongoing support we receive from the Soybean Checkoff allows us to move quickly to address the concerns of farmers," he said. "Without such a system in place, it easily could take years rather than months to begin responding to unexpected new problems like white mold that threaten soybean producers."
Joint Program at U of I Aims to Launch Agriculture Into Supercomputer Age
The College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences (ACES) at the University of Illinois and the U of I’s National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) have launched a joint effort aimed at leading the U.S. food and agriculture sector more quickly into the computer age.
The NCSA serves as the leading-edge site for the National Computational Science Alliance. The Alliance, which is funded by the National Science Foundation, was established to help develop a national information infrastructure for the 21st Century.
Operating under a formal memorandum of understanding, the cooperative program between the College of ACES and the NCSA will apply the latest supercomputer technologies to four important agricultural issues that represent fundamental changes in the way information will be used and managed in the future. Bruce Hannon of the Department of Geography will serve as overall coordinator of the program.
One of the major sub-groups will focus on applying supercomputing technologies to genome mapping and gene sequencing in both plants and animals.
"Something as seemingly simple as the common soybean plant has millions of DNA base pairs," said Don Holt, senior associate dean in the College of ACES. "Mapping and sequencing of genes from the soybean and numerous other species have produced huge, complex databases. With this new partnership, we should be able to blend information from databases around the world in a way that will greatly enhance the process of translating basic genetic data into useful transformed plants and animals."
Holt notes that the College of ACES already has a large group of scientists engaged in gene mapping and sequencing and in basic studies of gene function, comparative genome studies, and statistical genetics. At the same time, NCSA has broad expertise in managing huge databases and performing complex calculations at enormous speeds.
"Collectively this combination of talents will constitute a new discipline known as bioinformatics that will unite and integrate the many areas of study involved in genetic improvement of plants and animals," he said. "The result could be a whole new era of dramatic progress in biotechnology."
As part of this joint effort, researchers from the College of ACES and NCSA also are working on ways to collect and archive the enormous amounts of site-specific data generated by precision farming equipment. The data could then be analyzed in ways that reveal important relationships between yield and variables in the field.
"Efforts are also underway to develop new sensors that will collect more site-specific data on field and crop conditions," Holt said. "NCSA’s pioneering work in geographical information systems and other ways to process spatial data makes them an ideal partner with the College of ACES in this initiative."
The College of ACES and NCSA further are cooperating on development of web-based systems for delivering top-quality courses on food and agriculture anywhere that there is a demand.
"This project will transform not only conventional education but also outreach and in-service training," he said. "Ultimately it will blur the boundaries between work and education and between formal education and in-service training."
The two organizations also are cooperating on ways to better analyze the complex economic, social, and political processes that are involved in decision-making in the food and agricultural sector.
This process, which is known as systems dynamics, uses computer programs to help people formulate and refine models of systems. The models can then be used to measure and predict the performance of systems and teach people to mange them more efficiently.
"We hope to use systems dynamics to attack the complex problems associated with competing in the global food and agriculture markets," Holt said.
He adds that Hannon will head up the program on systems dynamics, as well as serving as overall coordinator. Project leaders for the other three major areas of cooperation are Harris Lewin of the Department of Animal Sciences, John Reid of the Department of Agricultural Engineering, and John Schmitz of the Office of Information Technology and Communication Services.
"These project leaders represent a unique group of talent,"Holt said."Taken together, all the components of this joint effort have the potential to bring about changes of great importance to the future of our food and agriculture system."
Industry Leader Foresees Major Impact From Biotechnology
Genetically altered crops are destined to dramatically change the way U.S. farmers produce soybeans and other crops, but biotechnology ultimately will have an even bigger impact on the rest of the world, according to Robert T. Fraley, president of the Ceregen division of Monsanto.
Fraley presented his views on the current status and future opportunities for transgenic crops during a recent presentation at the National Soybean Research Laboratory.
His visit to the NSRL came as part of the Daniel F. Dayton Memorial Lecture Series, which is sponsored by the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences at the University of Illinois. The event was co-sponsored by the Department of Crop Sciences, the Biotechnology Center, the Campus Genetics Program,.the NSRL, and the School of Life Sciences.
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Grace Dayton (left) meets with Robert T. Fraley, president of the Ceregen division of Monsanto, at the NSRL prior to annual lecture in memory of her husband Daniel F. Dayton. As the featured lecture speaker, Fraley presented his views on the current and future opportunities for transgenic crops and their impact on world food supplies. |
The lecture series was established by gifts in memory of Daniel F. Dayton, who served in the U of I’s Department of Horticulture and was internationally recognized for work in fruit breeding and genetics. During his tenure at the U of I, Dayton developed an innovative research program to reduce pesticide use on apples through the transfer of genetic resistance from exotic species. He was honored with an apple variety--the "Dayton" apple--named in recognition of his accomplishments.
In his role as president of Ceregen, Fraley is responsible for the discovery, development, and commercialization of new biotechnology-based products. He is known worldwide for his pioneering contributions to the development of gene transfer technologies in plants. He received his Ph.D. in microbiology/biochemistry from the University of Illinois.
During his NSRL lecture, Fraley noted that farmers appear to have already embraced the move to transgenic crops. One particularly good example of this widespread acceptance is the Roundup Ready soybean.
"Roundup Ready soybeans were sold out for the 1997 growing season," he says. "Farmers will plant nearly 9 million acres of Roundup Ready soybeans this year, and that will increase to more than 20 million acres next year. At the end of this year alone, farmers will have grown a total of more than 15 million acres of transgenic crops such as Bt-corn and Roundup Ready soybeans."
Fraley adds that surveys after the first season of availability showed that 90 percent of the growers who used Roundup Ready soybeans reported high satisfaction.
He traces much of this acceptance by farmers and the public to the environmentally sound nature of the new transgenic crops. By using genetics to control weeds and pests, these new crops provide an option to the use of chemical products and plastic pesticide containers.
"This takes us directly into the environmental area," Fraley says. "Because of that, many consumers will buy these products even if they are clearly labeled as genetically engineered."
He cites a supermarket study in which customers preferred some products that were labeled as genetically modified to the same products that were traditionally grown.
"Clearly, the customers see a benefit from having a more sustainable, more environmentally friendly production system," he says.
Fraley also foresees a day when crops can be genetically designed specifically for a wide variety of end uses. Manipulation of the amount of oil, starch, and sugar in plants could soon be used to create functional food items.
Most importantly, according to Fraley, these genetically engineered crops will have an even bigger impact in countries where the population explosion is pushing food production to the limit. He notes, for example, that more than 30 percent of the world’s crop production is lost each year to insect damage. As a result, traditional crop protection methods no longer are adequate to meet the rising need for improved crop production.
He adds, however, that several changes must take place before genetically altered crops can really come into their own. He calls for standardization of regulations around the world and increased investment for research and development of new products. In addition, customers and all the other parts of the food-production chain must be educated about the need for biotechnology products.
"We are at the beginning of a remarkable transformation of agriculture and the food chain," he says. "When I started 16 years ago, people were getting prizes for cloning genes. Now we can look at a whole array of new products in the marketplace and see the enormous impact of biogenetics."
Celebrating the Past and Future Successes of Soy
By Harold E. Kauffman
A recent article celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Soya Bluebook lists a series of key activities that have contributed to the success of the soybean in the United States during this century. The article highlights the important role that the U.S. has played in this effort. But, by not discussing activities in other parts of the world, one might get the impression that soybean is not a global crop and that there is no global demand for soybean products..
In fact, for a crop with virtually no commercial market except in Asia at the turn of the century, it is quite amazing that soybean has become one of the world’s leading crops. Today it is one of the largest agricultural commodities traded globally, and billions of people now benefit from products obtained from soy--food, feed, and industrial products.
Why did soy production increase out of its center of Asian origin? What role did other countries and regions play, and what are the implications for the future of soy in the world? As Paul Harvey would say in his well known radio show, there is a need to tell the "Rest of the Story."
Dynamic production gains. At the turn of the century, world soybean production was estimated at less than 3 million metric tons, essentially all of which was produced in Asia. By 1994-1996, annual global production averaged more than 130 million metric tons, a 50-fold increase during the century.
Clearly soybean production has increased most dramatically in the Western Hemisphere - first in North America and then in South America. But, modest gains also have occurred in East and Southeast Asia, Europe, and Africa. South Asia, especially India, has had a high rate of growth during the past decade.
To put this success into perspective, it is important to note that soybean production has increased at a faster rate during the last half of the century than the much publicized "green revolution" in cereal crops--wheat, rice, and maize. Soybean production increased nearly 700 percent during that period, while the average production gain of the three cereals was slightly less than 300 percent.
A much higher share of soybean production gains, however, has come from expanding the production area--a 300 percent increase for soybean compared to a 62 percent increase for the cereals. Much of the gain in cereals came from yield production increases--an average gain of 142 percent compared to only a 95 percent gain for soybean. Although total soybean production has not yet reached the levels of the three major cereals on a global basis, soybean likely will reach those levels with sustained growth during the next century.
Dramatic growth in demand. Of course, the push behind the increase in soybean production has been the dramatic worldwide rise in demand. Use of high-protein meal for poultry and livestock rations has increased more than 500 percent since 1960. By 1995, soybeans provided 60 percent of the world’s consumption of high-protein meal.
Significant, although less dramatic increases have occurred for soy oil and derivatives. For several decades, soy has been the leading source of vegetable oil on a global basis, with more than a 25 percent share. Soyfood consumption has continued to increase in Asia where soyfoods have long been a traditional part of the diet. More recently in North America increases have occurred as the awareness of the health benefits from consuming soyfoods has increased. Truly a combination of new and traditional uses of soy have provided the rapid growth in global markets.
Global contributions to the success of soybean. People in public and private institutions from around the world and across all segments of the soybean value chain have contributed to "globalizing" the soybean industry during this century. Soybean germplasm came from Asia to the Americas in the early part of the century, where it was improved through extensive research and development programs.
The genius behind mechanization and the increased use of chemical herbicides and pesticides has come from North America and Europe. The private sector has aggressively developed new equipment and chemicals which have dramatically increased production efficiency. More than 80 percent of current world production of soybeans come from areas which are highly mechanized.
Technology for the solvent extraction process, which permits efficient extraction of oil, came from Europe in the 1930s. Processing efficiency was subsequently increased by industry in both Europe and North America. Global markets for a wide range of soy products resulted from the development of handling, storage, and shipping systems by global companies. Marketing activities of the American Soybean Association assisted in these efforts in many parts of the world. The soybean industry clearly has become successful because of contributions from many companies and institutions around the world.
Lessons for the next century. Three lessons that I believe we must apply for the next century are:
--the need to focus on yield gains. Soybean yield gains have lagged considerably behind that of maize, wheat, and rice during this century. If production is to increase substantially during the next century, we must increase yields as the opportunities for expanding the growing area will be limited. Because yield gains in legumes are generally more difficult to accomplish than in cereals, the challenge will be a big one. It will be necessary to broaden the genetic base of soybean and to use all of the tools available to the scientific and production community, including conventional breeding, biotechnology, enhanced inputs, and precision farming .
--the need to strengthen collaboration within the soybean industry. All segments of the soybean value chain must work together to address the many aspects of production, handling, marketing, processing, and use which will keep soybeans competitive and profitable. Cooperation has begun in recent years on some aspects, but these efforts must be enhanced and expanded to all areas of mutual interest.
--the need to develop a new vision for global soybean research and development. In recognition of the global nature of the soybean industry, private companies and public sector institutions in the U.S. must expand strategic alliances around the world. In recent years successful private sector companies have built strategic alliances with companies in other countries. Partnership with public sector institutions both in the U. S. and abroad will help increase production efficiency, expand the output of products, and increase the competitiveness of soy.
Harold Kauffman is professor of International Agricultural in the Department of Crop Sciences at the University of Illinois and former director of the U of I’s International Soybean Program (INTSOY).
Recently I participated in a meeting where the major topic was the growing world population and the future need for food. Considerable attention was devoted to various projections indicating that the world’s population is poised to increase dramatically. The most conservative estimates indicated an increase of 2 to 3 billion people in the world population over the next 30 years.
During the meeting, one person made a startling comment. In effect, he said, "..that we’ve been hearing about hungry people, growing populations, and world food needs for years. Yet the average soybean producer really isn’t any better off because of these factors."
This statement surprised me and I promised myself that I’d check into the data to see if we can get a better handle on what the growth of world food needs means to the soybean producer. I thought it might be interesting to identify some of the countries that currently lead in soybean consumption and compare their current import levels with those of 30 years ago.
Soybean imports to Japan are an astonishing story. Already one of the major soybean importing nations in 1962, Japan’s soybean imports have increased more than four-fold over the three decades since then. By 1993, those imports exceeded 184 million bushels. Of course, much of those imports come from the United States.
But Japan is only part of the story. Other countries, such as Columbia, Costa Rica, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, and Spain, also have dramatically increased soybean imports. Each of these seven countries is now in the top group of soybean importing nations. Their 1993 imports range from the level of about 5 million bushels for Costa Rica and Columbia to more than 75 million bushels for Spain and Mexico.
These countries, however, are not, necessarily the largest importers even after Japan. Instead, what is particularly interesting is that 30 years ago, soybean imports into these nations were insignificant. Their total imports in 1962 were only slightly more than one million bushels, a pittance compared to their 1993 imports exceeding 250 million bushels..
But do any of these numbers really matter to the average soybean producer? Just the increase in soybean imports by Japan and those other seven countries exceeds 388 million bushels. Using 1996 average yields in the U.S. at 37.6 bushels per acre, this increased level of imports alone equals the production from more than 10 million acres of U.S. cropland.
Interestingly, soybean acreage in Illinois in 1996 was 9.9 million acres. So, without the increase in soybean imports of just these eight countries, we would need to find a new home for U.S. soybean production equal to that from the entire State of Illinois.
Maybe hungry people, growing populations, and world food needs have indeed mattered to the average soybean producer over the last 30 years. And, if we are to maintain and increase the profitability of soybean production, it’s likely that these global variables will be just as important over the next 30 years.
Research efforts and discoveries, such as described in this and prior issues of the NSRL Bulletin, will be essential to maintain a competitive and dynamic soybean sector that can respond to the future challenges of a global economy. It is critical, however, that we understand the need to continually inform and educate decision makers throughout the soybean industry of the need for global perspectives that match the reach of that industry.
Steven Sonka
NSRL Director and Soybean Industry Chair in Agricultural Strategy
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